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: CE HOW TO SPECIFY, DESIGN AND MAINTAIN ONLINE PROCESS ANALYZERS: Part 1 Technology and teamwork will give realtime, reliable measurements John A. Crandall In the vast majority of the CPI, determining the chemical compositions and physical properties of process materials has been the responsibility of the analytical laboratory. The chemist or the operator periodically takes samples from the process that are carried to the lab for analysis. However, as global competitiveness, quality improvement and environmental concerns have grown in importance, process feedback must be quicker and more accurate than ever before. Customers are demanding that product lots be exactly the same, every time. Potentially harmful byproducts must be detected in a process stream immediately, especially in continuous processes, to prevent the production of large quantities of product that does not meet specifications. Online analysis of physical properties or chemical compositions in dynamic processes addresses these concerns and allows for realtime control. Online analyzers cut down on product variation and raw-material waste, and can help companies to minimize energy usage. Refining, petrochemical and chemical manufacturers have already benefitted from online chromatography and spectroscopy, but producers of specialty chemicals, plastics, resins, pharmaceuticals foods and beverages can also benefit. For example, plastics manufacturers could employ online infrared analyzers to determine the purities of monomer streams at the polymerization stage, before impurities pass downstream to other processes. Several analytical methods -- gas chromatography, infrared and near-infrared spectroscopy -- have successfully made the transition from the lab to the process line. Each method has its own price, accuracy, complexity and maintenance requirements. A thorough knowledge of this information and the teamwork required to install an economical and effective system is critical. The major parts of an online process analyzer are: the sampling apparatus, the analyzer itself, and the methods used for data correlation, reporting and communication. Care should be taken in the design and selection of each part. Sampling In online process analysis, as in all of analytical chemistry, sampling is the most-critical and least-accurate step in the entire operation. Thus, it is the limiting step for the system. In addition, 80-90% of all the maintenance problems experienced by online analyzers take place during sampling. In liquid processes, for example, the sample may have to be maintained at a given temperature, requiring the use of heaters, coolers or constant-temperature transfer lines. Filtration, dilution or concentration may even be required once the sample arrives at the analyzer. The more machinery employed, the greater the potential for malfunctions. All sampling techniques for online analysis fit into three general categories: direct insertion of the analyzer into the process (in situ or inline analysis); continuous extraction of process material for delivery to the analyzer via transfer lines (ex situ or extractive analysis); or discrete sampling (nearline or atline analysis). In in situ or inline systems, the sample is not transported from the sampling point to the analyzer because the analyzer itself is at the sampling point (Figure 1, above). There is no transfer time or sample waste because the measurement is made on the moving process material. Inline sampling techniques are generally optical methods, such as infrared or near-infrared spectroscopy. An advantage of inline sampler-analyzers is that they can be multiplexed -- installed at many points in the process (Part 2, p. 102). The analyzer's controller oversees the frequency of analysis at each point and directs the switching between them. There are disadvantages to in situ techniques, however. For example, inline systems usually employ a window through which light is transmitted and reflected. Process liquids can dirty the window and cause measurement errors. In addition, temperature extremes or safety considerations at the sample point may not allow installation of sensitive electronics generally required by in situ systems. In ex situ or extractive systems, process material is transferred from the sample point to an external analyzer. Because the analyzer is installed away from the process, maintenance is more manageable than for in situ devices (Figure 2, above). Like in situ analyzers, extractive samplers may be placed at several different points in a process. In addition, calibration and reference streams can be routed to the analyzer in addition to the process samples, something not possible with in situ systems. Because extractive samplers have no optical windows, cleanup is simplified. If more-detailed analyses on specific materials are desired at a later time, users of extractive samplers can divert the sample into a collection vessel. The disadvantages to extractive systems are that they can be bulky and slow, and generate lot of waste. For example, an analyzer sampling six different streams requires an enclosure at the process to house the related machinery. Depending upon the distance that the sample must travel to the analyzer, times ranging from 20 to 60 s are common. Where heated samplers and transfer lines are necessary to keep a sample at a particular temperature, installation and maintenance costs can also be significant. The oldest method for sampling material from processes is discrete or grab sampling. Aliquots of process material are simply collected by hand and delivered to the analyzer, which is located either directly at the process line or in a lab. Once delivered to the instrument, some method of preparation, such as neutralization, filtration or dilution, is usually necessary. While this type of sampling may be sufficient to meet some analytical requirements, it is not considered to be a true online-analysis method. Analyzers Following sampling, comes analysis. Analyzers range from property- or compound-specific sensors, such as pH probes and oxygen detectors, to chemical and optical analyzers, chromatographs and spectrophotometers. Specific sensors are the simplest types of online analyzers. They are generally used to measure either the physical parameters of a gas or liquid stream such as pH, temperature, turbidity or oxidation-reduction potential, or easily detected compounds, such as oxygen (Figure 3, p. 96), cyanide or chlorine. In most cases, these sensors will have continuous outputs. Sensors are relatively inexpensive and easy to install and require little or no maintenance. While they can be very selective and sensitive, specific sensors can become fouled by the constant flow of process material, particularly those with high particle concentrations. While the outputs from specific sensors are considered to be in real time, all process analyzers, including sensors, experience lag times and stabilization times. The lag time is the time required for the process material to pass through the sensor's sampling element. It can be seconds or minutes long, depending on the flowrate, volume and geometry around the sensor. In addition to the lag time, the sensor requires time for its reading to stabilize. This time, called T90, is defined as that required for the sensor to reach 90% of its final output. Typical T90 times are on the order of 20-60 seconds. Gas chromatography (GC) is one of the most-commonly used methods of online analysis in industry. It is estimated that over 30,000 GCs have been installed since the 1950s. The method works best at separating the various components of multiple-component streams, which makes it particularly useful in the petrochemical and refining industries. GC can also determine the distributions of boiling points and molecular-chain lengths in mixtures. The widespread use of GC is a result of its versatility. As long as a sample can be vaporized, an effective separation is often possible. GC sampling is extractive. Therefore, sample-conditioning systems are required to regulate temperatures, pressures or flowrates before analysis. A small sample of the process material, 10-20 mL, is obtained with a valve and vaporized in a preheater. The sample is then pushed through a capillary tube (or column) with a carrier or mobile phase (Figure 4, above). The process material is separated by a stationary phase (a particle bed or a coating on the column wall). The separated components then enter a detector where they are quantified. With selective column separation, sample components do not interfere with each other. A typical GC unit (Figure 6, p. 97) employs helium or nitrogen as the mobile phase, while liquid chromatography uses solvents.* Depending upon the separation quality of the instrument, and the sensitivity of the detector (Figure 5, p. 97), GCs routinely achieve accuracies to within 0.25-2%. A big drawback for GC is maintenance. Instruments generally have many electrical and mechanical components. Preventative maintenance is a must. If upkeep of any part of a chromatograph, especially the column, is neglected to the point of a catastrophic failure, repair is not always fast or easy. Repairing a chromatograph can take hours or even days. Gas chromatography offers continuous results, but the retention time of the sample -- the time taken for the separated components to pass down the column -- must be considered. Typical retention times range between 1 and 20 min, depending upon the number of components and their vaporization temperatures. Retention times longer than about 20 min are impractical and generally unacceptable for online analysis. GC systems range in price from about $30,000 to $60,000. Prices depend upon the temperature requirements, the number of streams and components being measured and the detector. Spectroscopy is an optical technique in which ultraviolet, visible or infrared radiation is passed through the sample. Filters isolate discrete bands of light that are absorbed by the specific component. The amount of absorbed light is proportional to the concentration of each component (Figure 7, p. 98). The technique is most useful where the concentration of a particular molecular group, such as hydroxyls, paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and aromatics must be determined. Because chromatography takes advantage of differences in the boiling points of a mixture's components, the technique has difficulty separating chemical groups with a range of molecular-chain lengths. Instead of having one discrete boiling point, the multichain group has a range of boiling points. Obtaining chemical-group concentrations with GC requires measuring and summing the individual compounds in the group. Spectroscopy is faster and mechanically simpler than chromatography, and either direct-insertion or extractive sampling can be employed. The equipment for these online systems can cost as little as $10,000-25,000 and require little maintenance aside from keeping the cell window clean. In its simplest form, a spectrophotometer consists of a light source, an optical filter, a flow cell and a detector sensitive to the wavelength of choice. If there is only one component that absorbs light in the desired wavelength region, a simple photometer can provide accurate measurements. Spectroscopy isn't precise when measuring multicomponent mixtures because a chemical's absorbances at individual wavelengths often interfere with each other. Multiple filters or scanning instruments, which have dramatically higher costs, must be used in these situations. Such units can cost between $100,000 and $400,000 with applications work included. System computers are now equipped with data-reduction programs called chemometrics. These programs compare sample spectra to known spectra stored in a database known as a learning or training set. To establish such a database, the spectral properties and reference methods for a significant number of calibration samples must be examined and stored before the unit goes online. For GCs controlled by external computers, calibration requires only one sample, or at most five or six, to establish linearity in the expected concentration range. However, the chemometric models used by online spectrophotometers become more reliable as more samples are added to the learning set. The precision of spectroscopic methods can be on the order of 0.1% of the full-scale reading. However, a system's accuracy is a reflection of its learning set. The accuracy of an online spectrophotometer is only as good as the accuracy of the reference method used to calibrate it. With the advent of fiberoptics, online spectroscopy has become safer and more flexible than before. Fiber-optic cables allow the analyzer and the online probe to be separated by up to 1,000 m. The incident light travels along the cable to the probe, where sample absorption occurs. The reflected signal travels back to the detector through the cable, where it is analyzed. Where process safety is a high priority, fiber-optic spectroscopy may well be the best technique to use, because only the probe is in contact with the process material; the analyzer itself is in a safe location. The tradeoff is that the spectral quality of such systems can suffer and they can be quite expensive. Maintenance of online spectrophotometers can be either equipment or application oriented. Maintenance of the equipment is fairly simple. Application maintenance consists of the scientific and engineering work required to validate the system's results and regenerate the learning set as process formulations and the associated feedstocks change. Application maintenance is often overlooked by users, but it is critical to the reliability of online analyses. Even today's simplest analyzer has a microprocessor that refines raw data, performs calculations and displays results. Analyzers can be programmed in Basic or C, have graphical user interfaces and can be networked with other analyzers and data systems. Every analyzer should be linked to the plant's distributed control system (DCS). This way, process analytical data can be shared along a network just like data from the input-output devices of the DCS. Anyone along the network with either a DCS interface or an engineering workstation will be able to access the process data regardless of their location in the plant. In addition, maintenance, engineering and operating personnel can easily access all of the analyzers. Most suppliers of chromatography systems now offer such networks (Figure 8, p. 98). Designing a system The planning effort for designing and installing an online process analyzer must be a multidisciplinary one. Mechanical, electrical, industrial, civil and software engineers must be consulted in addition to the process chemists and chemical engineers. The business side of the plant should also be represented on the project team, with members included from the financial, accounting and purchasing departments. The project manager must tie the entire effort together. Ideally, this person is a generalist who can pull all disciplines -- science, engineering and business -- into a team. The team's objective is to install an online analyzer that measures physical properties or chemical compositions in dynamic processes. In short, it must get the right equipment, make sure it is reliable and that it provides the proper analytical data to those who need it. The project team's most important requirements are communication, cooperation and practicality. Too often, one or more of these requirements is missing, so the plant ends up with a unit that is either overequipped or underequipped for its needs, unreliable, not sophisticated enough, or too expensive. The objectives of the project must be clearly defined at the outset and all team members must agree that they are achievable. Communication is by far the most important requirement for the project team. The goals of the project are determined by the specific analytical needs of the plant. For example, more information may be required from the process than is currently available. A desire to reduce costs, increase analytical speed or product quality may be the driving forces. The process itself should be analyzed, too. Various information about the sample at the point of analysis should be documented. This should include the chemical composition, temperature, pressure, particulate content, flash point, potential for polymerization, viscosity, reactivity, toxicity, corrosivity and electrical-safety classification. Facility engineers should define where analyzers can be installed. Once information has been gathered, the desired analytical result must be defined. This includes the specific chemical components or properties to be determined, as well as ranges, precision, accuracies and response times. Define the minimum analytical requirements, the optimum requirements and the degree of flexibility between them. Just as people and companies compete, technologies compete. One method of analysis may overlap another in capability. This means that more than one technology may give satisfactory results and a choice must be made between technologies. Here is where analytical chemists should be consulted because they are best-suited to assess different techniques. At each stage of the planning and design effort, the project team must make sure that the system is practical over the long run. Equipment should be tested before installation to verify its reliability and define the probable maintenance requirements. Support your system No online-analysis system, whether it is automatic or manual, can simply be installed and forgotten. Regardless of how simple or complex it is, every system requires constant validation and maintenance. All too often, the return is taken for granted support is viewed as an additional cost rather than as part of the initial investment. The most-advanced users of online liquid analyzers maintain event logs and continuously account for costs and benefits. Thus, they always have data with which to justify expenditures on the system. Keep it simple Choose the simplest tool that meets your requirements. If you can get useful results from, say, a specific-ion probe connected to a workstation, don't try to get more complicated. If your needs are to measure a single component requiring only one calibration, don't equip your plant with a complex multicomponent analyzer that requires external calibration blends and linearity calculations. On the other hand, choosing a simple tool that doesn't meet your requirements is just as bad as, if not worse than, stepping up to higher technical levels. Rely on the project team to reach a consensus considering all aspects of the project. Use common sense and don't be afraid of new technology when your situation calls for it. *Liquid chromatography, an excellent lab technique, is not found in online applications because the instruments require more maintenance than do gas chromatographs. [Illustration] Figure 1: ``Sampling'' is actually a misnomer when referring to in situ analysis: Insitu probes are installed directly in the process flowstream and are connected via fiberoptic cables to an analyzer located in a remote area of the plant [Illustration] Figure 2: When extractive sampling is used, the analyzer can be located either directly adjacent to the process, as it is here, or in a remote location: Equipment costs increase if the transfer lines must maintain sample temperatures, pressures or solids concentrations LUTHER EASON [Illustration] Figure 3: Specific probes handle traditional measurements of physical properties such as pressure, temperature and pH: There are also probes available for specific ions and chemical compounds, such as this inline oxygen analyzer Applied Automation Inc: [Illustration] Figure 4: Mixtures are separated on chromatographic columns as a function of their retention times: Each component interacts differently with the stationary phase, thereby passing down the column at different rates [Illustration] Figure 5: Many different types of detectors are available for chromatographic analysis, depending upon the compounds being separated and the sensitivity required from the analysis [Illustration] Figure 6: The popularity of gas chromatography for online analysis is a result of its versatility, relative low cost and sensitivity Applied Automation Inc: [Illustration] Figure 7: The incident radiation from optical methods such as infrared spectroscopy excites intermolecular bonds: Absorption spectra are used to identify and quantify the bonds and compounds present in the sample [Illustration] Figure 8: Data highways allow online analyzers to be linked together on a common communications network, and give plant personnel access to information in realtime from personal computers and workstations [Biography] John A. Crandall is a Senior Product Manager with the Analytical Instruments Div. of Perkin-Elmer Corporation (761-T Main Av., Norwalk, Conn. 06859-0001, phone (203) 761-2756, fax (203) 761-2910). He received a B.S. degree in chemistry from Emporia (Kan.) State Univ.) An analytical chemist with experience in research, applications development, production, field service, sales and marketing, Crandall was the FTIR product manager for Applied Automation, Inc. (Bartlesville, Okla.) from 1975 until this year. His instrumentation experience includes gas and liquid chromatography, spectrophotometers and FTIR systems.
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